The English languages is said to be one of the most difficult to learn. Why is it so difficult for some people to learn English? Is it because unlike many languages, English is actually a combination of many languages. In fact, there are about ten different languages that have contributed to the English language and it is possible to find many words from different languages for a single item.
English is composed of the base language which is Anglo-Saxon or Germanic. It also includes Celtic, Scandinavian, Norman French, Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, African Manding-Kongo, Khemetic-Cushic, Hebrew, Arabic (Afro-Asiatic family), American Indian and East Indian words.
The group known as Khemitic-Cushic are languages like ancient Egyptian, Galla, Omoro, ancient Elamite and other languges spoken in the Middle East before the spreading of the Semites to the region.
Greek is heavily influenced by the African language sub-family (Afro-Asiatic) called Khemitic-Cushitic because the Greek islands were occupied by Egyptians thousands of years before the Dorians migrated from Central Asia. Hence words like 'hippopotimus' or 'natural'(netcher, n-g-r ), may be from ancient Afro-Asiatic root words that found their way into Greek through the Egyptians.
The settlement of various peoples and races in England as well as the colonization of parts of the world by the British have been the primary reasons for the diversity of the words, phrases and methods of speaking and expressing English.
The Anglo-Saxons were the first to speak 'English' however, the English language came from an ancient origin called Indo-Eruopean which was first spoken in parts of India. That language family (Indo-European) has its origins in Eastern Africa because it was from East Africa that the first humans settled India and introduced language and culture to that region. After the reduction in severity during the Ice Age about 50,000 BC, people who had lived in India moved into Central Asia, East Asia and Europe. Later on in history, about 3000 BC, migrations to Western Europe by Germanic tribes brought the Indo-European languages to Western Europe and the British Isles, where they fused with Celtic and Afro-Asiatic languages that were already present in Western Europe and the Mediterranean before the incursions of the Indo-Europeans.
All the languages above and others have added words, phrases and styles to the English language (see "The Story of English," at www.pbs.org ).
BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMER, FORMS AND RULES:
PARTS OF SPEECH
Noun - names person, place or thing.
Proper noun - person, place or thing.
Abstract - objects, eg. book, box, car.
Group or Collective - crowd, group, team.
Pronoun: Used in place of one or more nouns, eg.
The teacher prepared the lessons.
They brought out some new workbooks.
"They" used in place of "the teacher."
Pronoun can be used in place of another pronoun, eg.
The big dog has a collar. It did not like to wear it.
The 'antecedent' is the word that is replaced by the pronoun, eg. "The big dog."
There are many types of pronouns:
They are personal, relative, interrogative, demonstrative and indefinite.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
I, me, you -- he, him -- it - they, them
you -- she, her - we, us
POSSESSIVE FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS
My, mine -- his -- its - their, theirs
REFLECTIVE INTENSIVE PRONOUNS
myself - ourselves
yourself - yourselves
himself, herself - themselves
RELATIVE PRONOUNDS
who - which - what
whom - that - whose
Relative pronouns are used in subordinate clauses, eg.
a. The parents who came to the meeting are waiting.
b. The book that I read is no the table.
c. Is that the accountant whose work was approved.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
who - which - whose
whom - what
a. Who owns the car?
b. What was the age of the student?
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
this - these - that - those
a. This is wonderful.
b. This one is square.
a. That car looks green.
b. That car is green.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
all - each - most - other
another - either - neither - several
any - everybody - nobody - some
anybody - everyone - none - somebody
anyone - fear - no one - someone
both - many - one - such
INDEFINITE QUANTITY PRONOUNS
1. All the children are playing
2. Few of the dogs are barking
ADJECTIVE
A word used to modify (limit or enhance) a noun or pronoun.
1. What kind: green trees, blue grass, black hat.
2. Which one: this car, that house.
3. How many: twenty dollars, lots of time.
Adjective modifiers are in front of the noun. Sometimes it is after the noun and is a style used by some writers. This is and example:
1. This woman, 'tall, dark and lovely' walked across the floor.
2. She is friendly.
3. His car is comfortable.
WORDS USED AS BOTH ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
all - either - one - there
another - few - other - this
any - many - several - those
both - more - some - what
each - neither - that - which
ADJECTIVE:
1. Which car is better.
2. Which day is the holiday. (Which modifies the noun 'day.'
3. Which is the holiday? (Which takes the place of 'day.')
4. They want that house.
5. They want that (that takes the place of the noun 'house.'
NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES
1. car paint - baby stroller
2. German forest - Northern plains
3. African history - lions den
VERBS
A verb shows action or doing. A verb can also make a statement.
Verbs with objects are called 'transitive verbs.'
1. The baby drank the milk.
Milk is the object of drank.
2. The woman opened her umbrella. Umbrella is the object of 'opened.'
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
English verbs are either transitive or intransitive.
Transitive; The boys discussed the game strategies.
Intransitive; The boys discussed.
LINKING VERBS
The doctor is the best in town (Best compliments doctor)
He is the best. (Best refers to 'he.'
linking Verbs
appear - grow - seem - stay
become - look - smell - taste
feel - remain - sound
linking - The actors looked prepared.
Action - The actors looked at each other.
A verb that substitures for another can be a 'linking' verb.
1. The children 'stayed' (remained) inside.
2. Everyone in the school building stayed (remained) inside.
HELPING VERB, VERB PHRASE
Verb phrases are verbs that include a verb of more than one word.
HELPING VERBS
am - has - can (may) have
are - had - could (would,should)be
is - can - could (would, should)have
was - may - will (shall) have
were - will - might have
do - will - might have been
did - has - (had) been - must have
have - can - (may) be - must have been
HELPING VERBS
'has' arrived - 'Should have' been here
'will' return - 'could have' done it
ADVERB
An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, adverb. It tells how, when, where, what length (how often action is done).
1. He rans quickly - 'quickly' tells how fast he rans.
2. He speaks slowly and precisely.
'slowly' and 'precisely' tells how he talks.
along - down - to
arrived - during - toward
among - except - under
around - for - underneath
at - from - until
before - in - unto
behind - into - up
below - like - upon
beneath - of - with
beside - off - within
besides - on - without
Groups of words such as 'because of' 'regardless as to' and 'as a result of' are also included in this category.
CONJUNCTION
A Word that joins other groups or words, for example:
1. Take the money 'and' buy some 'clothes'.
2. Go t o class 'and' return the 'book'
3. They made it on time 'but' did not sit.
4. It is either the dog 'or' the cat.
5. We shall go 'when' it is time.
6. They passed 'because' they studied.
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These conjunctions include, and, but, or, nor, for. They are usually used in pairs.
1. She is going to school, 'whether' she has to walk 'or' ride.
2. He is a bright student 'but' he must be more attentive.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
either - or - not only - but(also)
neither - nor - whether - or
both - and
The above are use to begin subordinate clauses, eg:
1. You passed the test, 'since' [you studied the work.]
2. It usually 'rains' [when the clouds become dark grey.]
3. They went 'where' [they were invited.]
COMMON SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
after, / before, / provided,/ unless
although, / how, / since, / until
as, / if, / than, / when
as much as,/ in order, / that, / where
/ that, /
because, / in as much / though / while
/ as, /
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word that expresses emotion and is not related to other words in the sentence. These words are examples:
Oh my! My goodness! Oh yeah! Great! Ouch!
THE SAME WORDS AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH (this characteristic is very wide in African (Manding-Kush/Manding-Kongo) and African-American English and is derived from 'tonality' or using different tones of a single word to have many meanings).
1. The cards were made of 'plastic.' (plastic as a noun)
2. She has a 'plastic' smile (verb, meaning 'fake')
3. The players 'push' the ball upwards as their union 'push' for better conditions.
4. She decorated her 'locks' as her friends hair 'locks' up.
PARTS OF SPEECH
1. Noun: Names - engineer, Georgia, apples, gift.
2. Pronoun: Takes place of noun - it, them, ourselves, you, they.
3. Adjective: Modifies/adds to nown or pronoun - green, tiny, six.
4. Verb: helps to make statement and show action - is, ran, walk, lift, does.
5. Adverb: Modifies verb, adjective or anot her adverb - slowly, good, very, too.
6. Preposition: Relates nown or pronoun -of, above, within, into.
7. Conjunction: Joins words or groups of words - as, and, for, but, as, or, until.
8. Interjection: strong feeling and exclamation - oh my! goodness gracious! great!
PART TWO - SENTENCES
Sentences: Subjects, Prepositions, Objects and Verbs.
1. Prepositions show 'position' such as, on, in, under, beside, outside.
2. Main verbs, helping verbs are; can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would.
3. Subject/verb
All the boys (is,are) here (correct - are).
Singular/plural nouns
1. The players are doing well.
2. The students are prepared.
3. All the guests have arrived.
Subject // Object / Possessive Noun
I, / me, / my, mine
your, / you, / yours, your /
he, / him, / his,
she, / her, / hers,
it, / it, / its,
we,/ us, / our, ours
CLAUSES
Independent and dependent clauses
Independent
1. We were ready.
2. I was at school.
Dependent
1. If you prefer these.
2. Because you asked me.
RUN-ON SENTENCES, COMMA SPLICES
1. We worked overtime we had more work than expected. (Wrong way)
2. We worked overtime because we had more work than expected. (Right way)
Correct the first sentence by using a period (.) or change to a compound sentence by putting a semi-colan (;) or comma (,).
Correct complex sentence by putting 'conjunction.'
1. The cars are ready they were cleaned.
2. The cars are ready because they were cleaned.
Do not separate phrases from the rest of the sentences it belongs to.
1. The boats are sailing. About five miles away. (Wrong way)
2. The boats are sailing about five miles away. (Right way).
1. Josh is happy. And it show on his face
2. Josh is happy and it shows on his face.
PARENTHETICAL (INTERPRETING) EXPRESSIONS
"by the way"
"and moreover"
"in fact"
Put commas when being used.
1. It was raining and 'by the way' it was flooded.
2. It was raining, and 'by the way' it was flooded.
If the expressions are apart or at the end of the sentence, it must be followed by a comma.
1. No, we did not leave early
2. If in the middle, a comma must be put before and in front.
Examples:
We were walking, however, they wre riding.
Parenthetical Expressions:
a. after all
b. in fact
c. at any rate
d. ect.
e. for example
f. however
g. nevertheless
h. of course
i. on the other hand
j. therefore
k. well (beginning of sentence)
l. yes, or no at the beginning of sentence.
m. doesn't it.
n. Isn't it.
o. I believe.
p. I suppose.
q. I think.
r. You know.
Examples:
1. They are ready, after all, they said so.
2. They are ready after all the work they did.
APPOSITIVES
Appositives are additions that clarify sentences.
1. John James will be here today.
2. John James, the teacher, will be here today.
1. The Spring Equanox and Carnival is also the African New Year festivals.
2. The Spring Equanox and Carnival, held around the 22nd of March, is also the African New Year festivals.
Add comma both before and after the appositives.
Separating Words With Commas, eg.
1. English, math, reading are their favorite subjects. (Right way)
2. English math reading are thier favorite subjects. (Wrong way)
MODIFYING WORDS: A single word, phrase or clause
1. They scored a perfect goal. ('perfect' modifies 'goal')
2. The students on stage are doing fine.
('on stage' modifies 'students')
Modifiers must be properly placed, eg.
Misplaced Modifier:
1. The student told the teacher that another student left the campus, over the PA. (Wrong way)
2. The student told the teacher over the PA system that another student had left the campus. (Correct way)
3. While standing there, they saw what happened. (Wrong way)
4. They saw what happened while they were standing there. (Correct way)
5. While they were standing there, they saw what happened. (Correct way).
THE AFRIKUANDIKA ALPHABET AND WORD PRONUNCIATION GUIDE.
Afrikuandika (African Writing) is the perfect system for learning to say and pronounce English words or any other language. It is a 'hands on' practical application that 'shows' rather than simply telling how pronounciation is done.
AFRIKUANDIKA VOWELS, CONSONANTS AND PRONUNCIATION:
VOWELS:
ah - pronounced as 'ah' as in car, star
ae - pronounces as 'ae' as in stay, or hay
o - 'oh' as in hello or Bordeaux.
e - 'ee' as in he, really or fellini.
ooh - 'ooh' as in grew, you or stew.
air - 'air' as in stair, wear, error.
an - 'an' as in Angola, crossiant.
er - 'er' as in mirror, her.
or - 'or' as in for, halt.
eh - 'en' as in end, men.
ur - 'ur' as in herd, turn, bird or word.
CONSONANTS:
woo - 'woo' as in well, wood.
puh - 'puh' as in please, sharp, put.
buh - 'buh' as in bread, abby, Benin.
guh - 'guh' as in guy, hog, go.
kuh - 'kuh' as in cream, king, steak.
dh - 'duh' as in do, adding, good.
djay - 'djay' as in Jay, Jane.
djee - 'djee' as in Jill, stage, wedge.
tuh - 'tuh' as in ten, butter.
th - 'th" as in thin, thrill, truth.
fh - 'ff' as in found, after, staff.
rh - 'rrh' as in Robert, Rwanda, where.
mmm - 'mmm' as in Mali, hymm, make.
nnn - 'nn'as in green, Nigeria, inning.
ng - 'ng' as in Ngala, ngano, English.
sss - 'sss' as in Senegal, Mississippi.
zh - 'zh' as in Zhou, deja, jour.
zz - 'zzz' as in raise, Xylophone, Zulu.
kss - 'kss' as in Bronx, Xmas, vex, tax.
tch - 'tch' as in children, Chad, starch.
ssh - 'ssh' as in shall, shape, Lucia.
yee - 'yee' as in Yaounde, yellow, why.
AFRIKUANDIKA HIEROGLYPHIC ALPHABETRESOURCES AND REFERENCES:
The complete book, Afrikuandika: The African Hieroglyphic Writing System is published by Vantage Press,
Vantage Press Some great books containing everyday speech and dialogue for practicing English conversation are also available on this site,
BooksBooksAuthorhouseThe book of poetry, "Rap, Rhyme and Rhythm' is a fantastic resource. It is published by
AuthorHouse See also "Idols"
InfinityPublishersXlibrisSusu Economics
